In the discussions above, we have been thinking about what knowledge A complex construction of information and individual experience with an interrelatedsocial and environmental dimension. (N.B. many different interpretations of knowledgeexist, and this is one preferred in this Toolkit) is, its relationship to other aspects of a knowledge system, i.e. information a source of data or sensory input, organized or arranged into a pattern which can be interpreted., and innovation. We have debated about whether there is such a thing as a knowledge system, or whether knowledge is a social construct which cannot be systematized. In doing this, we have actually been trying to ‘know’ knowledge. It does not matter that there are no clear-cut answers; the important issue is to ask ‘What processes are taking place?’ and ‘What do I know about these processes’. We have also been asking, as individuals, ‘What do I know about knowing?’ and, hopefully, ‘What can I do to examine the way I think about what I know and make it more effective?’
Learning models
The implication of all this for learning, is that learning is not a simple activity! And just as there are different views of knowledge and knowing, there are different views of learning.
One model for learning is comprised of three levels:
Cognition: individuals compute, memorize, read, etc.
Meta-cognition: individuals monitor their own progress while engaged in cognitive tasks.
Epistemic cognition: individuals reflect on the certainty of knowing and criteria of knowing.
Bawden (1990) thinks of these different levels as learning ‘loops’, where a double loop consists of two orders of learning, method and methodology. For any situation, the focus of an inquiry is the first order loop. For example, how is information passed between people living in neighbouring villages? The second order loop is to ask, how will we inquire about this question? What procedures are we using? Why? etc. Learners who move into this second order of the double loop, or who address their learning at the level of epistemic cognition, become what Schon calls a ‘reflective practitioners’.
According to Bawden, in the first order loop we must learn to:
Involve ourselves directly and fully in experiences.
Investigate these experiences from as many different perspectives as possible.
Pattern our observations into meanings, theories or interpretations as a basis for informed action.
Put these theories into action for testing for change.
In the second order loop we must learn to question:
the relevance of our methodology and the questions we are asking,
the characteristics of our own world view,
the way we are thinking, patterning and construing,
the processes by which we make theories, and the theories which others have about thinking and making theories,
the reflection on the way we are going about our learning.
More recently, Bawden (2000) has developed a view of systemic, or holistic learning, illustrated as follows:
From this viewpoint, a learner, at any point in time, has a set or sets of values, and holds certain theories. Any action taken by the learner will be based on these theories and values, but also influenced by the context. Once an action has been taken, the values of the learner may shift, as a result of the experience, and he or she may generate new theories. At the same time, the context itself will be changed as a result of the action. This view creates tremendous possibilities for trainers to facilitate learning, but at the same time increases the responsibility of the trainer, especially in the need to understand as much as possible about the learning process. From this discussion, it should now be clear that since there is no single ‘correct’ view about knowledge and learning, it is vital that the trainer does reflect carefully and consciously on his or her theories and values. Without this personal ‘double-loop’ learning, based upon the principle of reflecting on experience, it will be very difficult to influence the learning of others.
Learning styles
All learners are individuals, and different individuals may have a different style of learning. There are four main styles of learning:
Active learners: ‘jump in and do it immediately’.
Reflective learners: ‘wait and see, then try it’.
Theorizing learners: ‘understand basic principles; logical; objective’.
Experimental learners: ‘don’t believe it until I’ve tried it; problem-solvers’.
When working with a group, it is likely that several or all of these learning styles are represented amongst the trainees. A trainer must make every effort to get to know the trainees as individuals, in order to understand how to facilitate their learning most effectively. Of course this is not always easy, especially in short courses. An alternative strategy is to vary the training methods, so that each learner has an opportunity to learn in the style which is most suited.
Drawing on adult learning strategies and the recognition that trainees have different styles of learning, a few practical suggestions for the trainer of adults are presented in the box below.
Some practical suggestions for the trainer of adults:
Build up and enhance learning techniques of learners.
Start with specific issues, then move from the concrete to the general.
Use small, manageable pieces of learning.
Use an appropriate range of learning methods and materials.
Try to use participatory learning and discovery learning approaches whenever possible.
Encourage understanding, not memorizing.
Provide opportunities for imitation.
Allow learners to practise as soon as possible.
Make it possible for learners to use their own style of learning.
Allow learners to organize their own learning.
Ensure that the learning does not stop at the end of the course.
Leave the learner feeling that they want to learn more, and that they can continue on their own if necessary.