Educational objectives are different to aims. Often they are termed ‘learning outcomes’, because not everyone feels comfortable with the term ‘objective’. This suggests an externally driven approach, with too narrow a focus. It is useful, however, to identify objectives or learning outcomes in training courses, since many training programmes fail to achieve any learning at all. In a PCD Participatory Curriculum Development approach, the issue is to try to involve stakeholders, especially the learners, in the identification of the objectives. This may be done before the course, or even as the course progresses, where there is opportunity for a flexible approach.
An objective a statement of what a learner is expected to learn by the end of a training course,expressed in terms which are specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and time-bound. is a statement of what learners will be like or what they should be able to do after successfully completing a given course of instruction or being exposed to a given learning experience. In other words there should be a measurable change in behaviour. The objectives will derive from the stated aims, and different stakeholders may be involved in their construction.
How to write objectives?
There are four basic rules for writing educational objectives.
Objectives should:
1. be written in terms of the learner, i.e. what the learner will be able to do after instruction;
2. identify the desired behaviour by name and specify observable behaviour (it must be possible to assess the activity in some way);
3. state the conditions or restrictions under which the desired behaviour will occur;
4. include a criterion or performance standard which the learner must achieve to be considered acceptable.
These rules are sometimes expressed by saying that objectives should be ‘SMART’.
S = specific
M = measurable
A = attainable
R = realistic
T = time-bound
Example: AIM a broad statement which gives a general direction or guidance to a teaching or training programme. of a course
for farmers on trees for soil conservation
To provide the necessary knowledge A complex construction of information and individual experience with an interrelatedsocial and environmental dimension. (N.B. many different interpretations of knowledgeexist, and this is one preferred in this Toolkit) and skills
to farmers so that they can manage agroforestry trees and technologies
for soil conservation purposes while at the same time improve their crop
yields.
Behavioural change
In order for the objective to be achieved, some change in the learner’s behaviour must take place. In order to assess that this has occurred it is necessary to have evidence. This is done by including a verb in the objective, i.e. a statement of what the learner will be able to do after the period of learning. Some words are better than others for the construction of objectives. A list of useful verbs is provided at the end of this topic in annex 1 – Shopping list of verbs). Some rather general words, such as know, understand, enjoy, believe, appreciate, should be avoided.
It will be very difficult to measure whether someone ‘knows’ something, but much easier if you expect the learner to ‘explain’ something.
In order to produce psychomotor objectives, the use of task and skill analysis may reveal the component abilities, which together make up a particular skill; e.g. many skills are required in order to ‘prune a tree’;
Classification of objectives
According to some educationists, there are three ‘domains’ of learning:
1. cognitive domain: deals with objectives which emphasize intellectual outcomes such as knowledge and understanding;
2. affective domain: deals with objectives which emphasis feelings and emotions such as interest, attitudes and appreciation;
3. psychomotor domain: deals with objectives which emphasize motor skills such as writing, using tools, using hands, etc.
Every objective is likely to have cognitive, affective and psychomotor components because all learning activities involve all three domains. Each objective is therefore classified according to the major component. E.g. ‘planting a tree’ lies primarily in the psychomotor domain but still requires knowledge and attitudes.
Levels of learning
Within each domain, there are five or six levels, ranging from the simple to the complex; each successive level assumes that all those below it have been achieved. E.g. in the cognitive domain, ‘application’ (level 3) presupposes that knowledge (level 1) can be recalled and comprehended (understood) (level 2).
For example, the cognitive domain has six levels:
1. knowledge,
2. comprehension,
3. application,
4. analysis,
5. synthesis,
6. evaluation.
It is much harder to ensure that learners are able to ‘evaluate’ than it is to ensure that they ‘know’ something. For this reason, there is a tendency to only write objectives for the lower levels of the domains. It is also more difficult to ensure that objectives based on the affective domain have been achieved. How do you find out if a learner ‘identifies with’ something? These are some of the problems you are likely to face when writing objectives!
Teachers and learners - who does what?
Many teachers and trainers plan their teaching in terms of what they will do themselves. The most important point to remember is that objectives are to be written in terms of what the learner will be able to do after a period of learning has taken place. This requires a shift in emphasis from what the teacher/trainer will do, to what the learner(s) will be able to do. Grasping this idea is the key to writing objectives.
The learner’s responsibility is to learn. The teacher or trainer has a key role to play in facilitating this learning, by doing the following:
1. identify the domain(s) and level(s) of any objective;
2. ensure a balance between domains of objectives;
3. ensure that higher as well as lower level objectives are included in any sequence of instruction (where appropriate);
4. ensure that lower level objectives have been achieved before higher levels are attempted (where sequential learning is wanted);
5. select and use content, methods and materials which promote the achievement of the learning objectives
6. devise assessment and evaluation processes which are appropriate to various levels of objectives.
An example of a learning objective
Let us consider an example. A need has been identified for people in a village to learn how to establish a seedbed for growing agroforestry trees from seeds. How could we write this as an acceptable learning outcome a statement of the learning which is expected by the end of a training programme, but presented in a way which does not predetermine the outcome for every learner (usually more process-oriented than an objective). as it stands?
1. Behaviour:
What do we expect the learner to do? To ‘know how’ to make a seedbed, to explain it in the classroom, draw a picture, or actually establish a seedbed in the village? Let us assume that we expect learners to establish the seedbed - this can be observed, and therefore the learners and we can verify it together.
2. Setting conditions:
It is necessary to state clearly under what conditions the objective is to be achieved. If we were to say that the learner ‘should be able to establish a seedbed for agroforestry trees’, how long would he or she need to complete the activity? One week? A year? Ten years?
We can make this measurable by stating, ‘by the end of the course, the learner should be able to establish a seedbed for agroforestry trees’.
3. Meeting criteria:
We might ask some other questions about the task to be completed? Where will the seedbed be established? Who should be involved? What preparations are needed? What will show that it has been established properly? What follow-up should be organized?
Evidently, we must specify the criteria to be met; e.g. the seedbed should be constructed in a way that will protect the seedlings and provide them with the best possible chance for germination and strong growth; perhaps we might specify the location (in shade, beside a river...), or specify some social or environmental criteria, e.g. establish it in a village with not more than 50 households, in an area which includes newly allocated forestry land etc..
Our final objective could therefore be:
But this example also highlights the difficulties with objectives. Establishing a seedbed involves many, many sub-tasks (choosing the site, marking out the site, preparing the ground, obtaining the seeds etc.). So, it may be necessary to break down this big task into smaller ones, and write a series of more specific objectives.
Now you must practise writing objectives yourself!